How do ferns reproduce?

Ferns reproduce through spores, which are small, dust-like structures that are produced in specialized structures called sporangia, typically found on the undersides of their fronds (leaves). This is a distinctive feature of the fern life cycle, distinguishing them from seed-producing plants.

During reproduction, spores are released into the environment and can germinate under suitable conditions, developing into a new, heart-shaped gametophyte. This stage produces gametes for sexual reproduction, which eventually leads to the formation of a new fern plant. This method of reproduction is part of a two-phase life cycle called alternation of generations, which includes the sporophyte phase (the fern plant itself) and the gametophyte phase.

In contrast, other options such as seeds and pollen pertain to seed-producing plants, which reproduce differently. Spirals do not represent a legitimate reproductive method and are not relevant to fern biology. This characteristic of reproducing via spores is what defines ferns and differentiates them within the plant kingdom.